The Spanish Colonization of Mexico

In 1521, the Spanish Conquistador Hernán Cortés brought an end to the mighty Aztec Empire, establishing New Spain—a colony that Spain would control for the next three centuries. The Spanish Crown built this new society on the exploitation of indigenous people and the forced labor of African slaves, organized around a rigid social hierarchy. The peninsulares, or Spaniards born in Europe, held the highest social status and occupied key administrative positions. Beneath them were the Creoles, Mexicans of Spanish descent born in the colony, who were marginalized from high offices despite their wealth and influence. Mestizos—those of mixed Spanish and indigenous descent—and indigenous and enslaved populations formed the lower classes, experiencing oppression, high taxation, and limited social mobility. This deeply unequal system became the spark for revolutionary sentiments that would shape Mexican history.

The Bourbon Reforms and Growing Discontent

As Spain attempted to strengthen its control over its colonies, it introduced the Bourbon Reforms in the 18th century, increasing economic regulations and placing Spanish-born officials in positions of authority. These reforms further angered the Creoles, who were already feeling the strain of high taxes, limited political representation, and growing economic restrictions. Amid this climate of discontent, Enlightenment ideas began to take root in Mexico, fueled by news of successful independence movements, such as the American Revolution (1776) and the French Revolution (1789). The Creole elite, alongside mestizos and indigenous populations, were drawn to ideas of equality, freedom, and self-governance, planting the seeds of a movement that would alter Mexico’s future.

The Impact of Napoleon's Invasion, Early Conspiracies and Revolutionary Sentiment

A critical turning point came in 1808 when Napoleon invaded Spain and forced King Ferdinand VII to abdicate. Spain’s government was left in disarray, allowing Mexican reformers to take advantage of the weakened empire. Secret independence movements began to take shape, like the Conspiracy of Valladolid in 1809, led by Creole intellectuals and officers. Although quickly discovered, the conspiracy revealed the growing support for independence among Mexico’s Creole elite.

The Grito de Dolores and Early Rebellion

In 1810, a more organized group of conspirators assembled in Querétaro to plan a rebellion. Among them were Creoles and mestizos, including Miguel Hidalgo, a priest known for his progressive views and advocacy for the poor, Captain Ignacio Allende, Josefa Ortiz de Domínguez, known as La Corregidora for her influential role in organizing the meetings, and Juan Aldama, another key figure. They planned to launch an uprising in December 1810; however, their plan was discovered on September 15. This prompted Father Hidalgo to issue the famous Grito de Dolores early on the morning of September 16, calling for Mexicans to rise up against Spanish oppression. His rallying cry united mestizos, indigenous people, and Creoles, and is celebrated today as the official beginning of the Mexican War of Independence.

Continued Resistance and Leadership Changes

Under Hidalgo's leadership, a large army composed mainly of mestizos and indigenous people quickly formed, and his forces won significant victories. Yet the army, lacking formal training, struggled to hold territory and was ultimately defeated outside Mexico City. Captured and executed in 1811, Hidalgo’s sacrifice served as a powerful symbol, inspiring others to continue the struggle for independence. Leadership of the movement passed to José María Morelos, a mestizo priest who advocated for abolishing slavery, ending racial inequality, and drafting a constitution. Morelos’ Congress of Chilpancingo declared Mexican independence in 1813, setting forth an ideal for a new nation.

In the following years, Mexican independence was sustained by guerrilla fighters, such as Vicente Guerrero and Guadalupe Victoria, who kept the struggle alive in rural regions, particularly southern Mexico. After Morelos' execution in 1815, the movement lost momentum but continued through isolated resistance, setting the stage for a final push.

The Path to Official Independence

The independence movement received a new lease on life in 1820, as political shifts in Spain forced the Spanish king to reinstate a liberal constitution. Concerned that these reforms would threaten their privileges, conservative Creoles in Mexico aligned themselves with the independence movement. Agustín de Iturbide, a conservative Creole officer, approached Guerrero, and together they formed the Plan of Iguala in 1821, which guaranteed independence under three core principles: Mexico’s freedom from Spain, the establishment of Catholicism as the state religion, and equality between Creoles and peninsulares. Iturbide’s plan managed to unite diverse factions under a common cause, and on August 24, 1821, Spanish and Mexican leaders signed the Treaty of Córdoba, bringing an official end to Spanish rule after more than 300 years.

The Early Years of the Mexican Republic

Following independence, Mexico faced significant challenges. Agustín de Iturbide was declared emperor in 1822, but his authoritarian rule quickly alienated many of his supporters, leading to his overthrow. Mexico became a republic under the 1824 constitution, with Guadalupe Victoria elected as its first president. Yet political instability plagued the young nation, with regionalism and external threats threatening to divide it. The Mexican-American War of 1846-1848 resulted in the loss of a significant portion of Mexico's territory, and the struggle to define Mexico’s national identity continued through these territorial challenges and internal conflicts.

Amid this turbulence, the Reform War in the 1850s brought the liberal reformer Benito Juárez to power. As a Zapotec indigenous leader, Juárez enacted a series of reforms that aimed to modernize Mexico and reduce the influence of the Catholic Church, marking a shift toward a secular, centralized government. Yet conservative forces remained opposed to his reforms, leading to further conflicts and eventually the French intervention in 1862. Napoleon III installed Maximilian of Austria as emperor, but Juárez’s forces resisted fiercely. With Maximilian’s defeat and execution in 1867, Mexico reaffirmed its independence and returned to republican governance.

The Legacy of Independence

Today, Mexico's fight for independence and the subsequent struggles have shaped its modern identity. Figures like Hidalgo, Morelos, and Juárez are celebrated as national heroes who championed values of equality, liberty, and justice. Each year on September 16, Mexicans commemorate El Grito de Dolores with grand celebrations. The president, standing in the National Palace, rings the historic bell and shouts, “¡Viva México!” and “¡Viva la independencia!” to enthusiastic crowds, a tradition echoed in town squares across the nation.

The themes that drove Mexico’s independence—freedom, social justice, and national unity—remain central in Mexican society. The nation continues to honor this legacy, confronting modern challenges with a commitment to sovereignty, resilience, and pride in its history and culture.