Peru

Spanish Conquest and the Rise of the Viceroyalty of Peru (1532-1535)

Peru’s journey to independence is a compelling story of resistance, resilience, and eventual liberation. For nearly three centuries, Peru was a keystone in the Spanish Empire, a land of immense wealth due to its silver and gold mines. This era began in the early 16th century when the Spanish forces, led by Francisco Pizarro, conquered the Inca Empire in 1532-1533. Lima, founded in 1535, became the capital of the Viceroyalty of Peru and the administrative center for Spanish rule in South America.

Seeds of Rebellion: Túpac Amaru II and the 1780 Rebellion

However, beneath this veneer of imperial dominance, discontent brewed among Peru’s indigenous population and the Creole elite. This sentiment erupted in the 1780s with the Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II, one of the earliest and most significant uprisings against Spanish colonial rule. Túpac Amaru II, a descendant of the Inca royalty, led a rebellion fueled by the harsh conditions and exploitation endured by indigenous communities and Creole populations alike. His cause resonated across the Andean highlands, though the rebellion was ultimately suppressed by Spanish forces. Despite its failure, the uprising left a lasting impact, igniting a spirit of resistance that would continue to grow.

The Bourbon Reforms and Revolutionary Ideas (Late 1700s)

In the late 1700s, Spain’s Bourbon Reforms further destabilized its grip on Peru. These reforms, designed to consolidate power and increase revenue in  response to fiscal challenges, imposed new taxes and stripped local elites of their influence, triggering widespread discontent. Peruvian Creoles, particularly, grew increasingly frustrated by the restrictions placed on their economic and political ambitions, while indigenous populations felt the strain of increased burdens and social inequalities. Amid this unrest, ideas of self-governance and equality, inspired by the American and French revolutions, began circulating among Peru’s intellectual elites, planting the seeds for a revolutionary transformation.

The Invasion of Spain and its Impact (1808) and The First Revolutionary Sparks (1810s)

The landscape changed dramatically in 1808 when Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Spain and deposed King Ferdinand VII. This upheaval threw Spain and its American colonies into disarray, creating a political vacuum that sparked independence movements throughout Latin America. While Peru remained a royalist stronghold, serving as a central base for Spanish loyalists, revolutionary fervor spread across the continent, reaching Peru in the early 1810s. In response to the May Revolution in Buenos Aires, which established the independent United Provinces of the Río de la Plata (modern-day Argentina), revolutionary uprisings began to emerge in Peru. Though most were quickly suppressed, the actions of local leaders like Mateo Pumacahua and the Angulo brothers indicated a growing willingness to challenge Spanish rule.

José de San Martín’s Liberation Campaign (1816-1820)

By 1816, José de San Martín, a general who had successfully led independence campaigns in Argentina and Chile, turned his sights to Peru. His goal was to end Spanish rule in South America entirely. Supported by the Chilean navy under Admiral Lord Thomas Cochrane, San Martín and his army landed on the coast of Peru in September 1820. Establishing a base at Paracas, he began his campaign to win local support and push the Spanish out of the region.

The Occupation of Lima and Declaration of Independence (1821)

After months of strategic maneuvers, San Martín's forces entered Lima on July 6, 1821, following the retreat of Spanish Viceroy José de la Serna. On July 28, 1821, San Martín formally declared Peru’s independence in a public ceremony in Lima's Plaza Mayor, proclaiming, “From this moment, Peru is free and independent, by the general will of the people and by the justice of their cause.” Named Protector of Peru, San Martín began to organize a new government to replace the colonial administration, though the Spanish still held significant strongholds in the Andean highlands and the interior.

The Arrival of Simón Bolívar and the Final Campaign (1822-1824)

Despite San Martín’s efforts, the Spanish resistance proved resilient, and the war for independence was far from over. In 1822, San Martín met with Simón Bolívar, the famed Venezuelan revolutionary who had liberated much of northern South America. Recognizing Bolívar’s experience and military capabilities, San Martín stepped aside, leaving Bolívar to lead the remaining campaign to free Peru from Spanish rule.

The Decisive Battle of Ayacucho and Complete Independence (December 1824)

Between 1822 and 1824, Bolívar and his trusted general Antonio José de Sucre led military campaigns across Peru, facing fierce opposition. In a crucial turning point on August 6, 1824, Bolívar’s forces achieved a significant victory over the royalist army at the Battle of Junín in the highlands. However, it was the Battle of Ayacucho on December 9, 1824, that decisively ended Spanish rule in Peru. Sucre’s army defeated the Spanish royalists in a resounding victory, effectively securing independence for Peru and, symbolically, for all of South America.

The Final Years of Spanish Presence and Bolívar’s Reforms (1825-1826)

In the years following this victory, Bolívar implemented reforms aimed at stabilizing Peru’s fledgling republic. However, political tensions and regional rivalries soon surfaced, testing the new nation’s unity. By 1825, Antonio José de Sucre had secured the surrender of the last remaining Spanish forces, officially ending three centuries of Spanish control over Peru.

The final departure of Spanish troops in 1826 marked the culmination of Peru’s arduous struggle for independence. Though the early years of the republic were marked by internal conflict and political challenges, the triumphs of figures like San Martín, Bolívar, and Sucre set the foundation for Peru’s future as a sovereign nation.

Celebrations of Peru’s Independence

Today, Peru celebrates its independence each year with Fiestas Patrias on July 28 and 29, a vibrant national holiday that honors the proclamation of independence in 1821. The festivities feature military parades in Lima and other cities, highlighting the strength of the armed forces and commemorating the sacrifices made for independence. Government officials, including the President, participate in formal ceremonies in Lima’s Plaza Mayor, reflecting on Peru’s history and resilience.

Civic pride is evident in communities nationwide, with parades, fairs, and traditional dances like marinera and cumbia. The celebration of Peru’s cultural diversity is further emphasized in festivals showcasing regional crafts, cuisine, and music, while historical reenactments bring the events of the independence struggle to life for new generations. Family gatherings are an essential part of the holiday, where people come together to enjoy traditional dishes like ceviche, lomo saltado, and pachamanca, and fireworks light up the evening skies.

The celebrations of Fiestas Patrias are more than just a nod to history—they are a testament to the enduring pride and unity of the Peruvian people. Through these festivities, Peruvians honor the past, celebrate their cultural heritage, and look forward with a shared vision for the future.